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Global intellectual history is the history of thought in the world across the span of human history, from the invention of writing to the present. For information about the methodology of intellectual history, please see the relevant article. In recent years, historians such as C. A. Bayly have been calling for a ''global intellectual history'' to be written. They stress that to understand the history of ideas across time and space, it is necessary to study from a cosmopolitan or global point of view the connections and the parallels in intellectual development across the world. Yet these separate histories and their convergence in the modern period have yet to be brought together into a single historical narrative. Nonetheless, some global histories, like Bayly's own ''Birth of the Modern World'' or David Armitage's ''The Declaration of Independence: A Global History'' offer contributions to the huge and necessarily collaborative project of writing the history of thought in a comparative and especially connective way. Other examples of transnational intellectual histories include Albert Hourani's ''Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age''. The origins of human intellectual history arguably began before the invention of writing, but historians are by definition only concerned with the eras in which writing was present. In the spirit of a historiographic project that is relevant to all human beings and that has yet to be completed, the sections that follow briefly review currents of thought in pre-modern and modern history of the world, and are organized by geographic area (and within each section, chronologically). ==Europe and the Americas== The modern intellectual history of Europe cannot be separated from various bodies of ancient thought, from the works of classical Greek and Latin authors to the writings of the fathers of the Christian Church. Such a broad survey of topics is not attempted here, however. A debatable but defensible starting point for modern European thought might instead be identified with the birth of scholasticism and humanism in the 13th and 14th centuries. Both of these intellectual currents were associated with classical revivals (in the case of scholasticism, the rediscovery of Aristotle; in the case of humanism, of Latin antiquity, especially Cicero) and with prominent founders, Aquinas and Petrarch respectively. But they were both significantly original intellectual experiences, as well as self-consciously modern, so that they make an appropriate starting point for this survey. What follows below is a selective and far from complete listing of significant trends and individuals in the history of European thought. While movements such as the Enlightenment or Romanticism are relatively imprecise approximations, rarely taken too seriously by scholars, they are good starting points for approaching the enormous complexity of the history of Europe's intellectual heritage. It is hoped that interested readers will pursue the listed topics in greater depth by consulting the respective articles and the suggestions for further reading. The intellectual history of western Europe and the Americas includes: *Scholasticism: Associated especially with Aquinas and the recovery of Aristotle, a movement that was popular in universities and provided a new way of reasoning especially in law, philosophy, theology. *Humanism: Humanists were associated with the discipline of rhetoric but they were not just orators, they also learned ancient languages, especially classical Greek and created new knowledge about the secular past. The revival of ancient literature and philosophy was of immense importance for the further development of European thought. The first humanist is considered to be Petrarch. Later exponents of note were Leonardo Bruni, Lorenzo Valla, and Erasmus of Rotterdam. *The Renaissance: A movement in the arts and letters, it is associated particularly with humanism, but also with new trends in painting and with the efflorescence of a new courtly culture that from Italy (c.1350) spread across Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. *The New Philosophy: The 20th century dubbed this the Scientific Revolution, but in the 17th century, the new science was more often considered to be a new way of doing philosophy. It is associated mainly with the thought of Francis Bacon and Descartes. Other important philosophers were: Hobbes, Gassendi, Malebranche, Spinoza, Leibniz. Advances in astronomy were made by Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler and Galileo. *The Royal Society: A secular creation of an intellectual world led by figures such as Isaac Newton, Robert Hooke, Christopher Wren, Joseph Addison, and Bishop Sprat. *The Enlightenment: Key developments in thought included The rights of man, political representation, political economy, deism. Notable participants counted Bayle, Hume, Adam Smith, Adam Ferguson, Fontenelle, the Comte de Buffon, Kant, Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, Moses Mendelssohn, Vico. *The Encyclopaedists: The creation of central repositories of knowledge available to all outside of academies, including mass-market encyclopaedias and dictionaries: Diderot, Samuel Johnson, Voltaire, and Ephraim Chambers. *Romanticism : Individual, subjective, imaginative, personal, visionary (scholarly sources Carlyle, Rousseau, Hook, and Herder). *Post-romanticism: Reaction to naturalism, opposes external-only observations by adding internal observations (scholarly sources Comte, von Ranke). *Modernism : Rejects Christian academic scholarly tradition (scholarly sources Søren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Jacob Burckhardt, Charles Beard, Ferdinand de Saussure, Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung). *Pragmatism : Links the meaning of beliefs to the actions of a believer, and the truth of beliefs to success of those actions in securing a believer's goals. Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, John Dewey, F.C.S. Schiller, Richard Rorty. Originated in late nineteenth century America. *Existentialism: Pre- and post-WW2 rejection of Western norms and cultural values. Søren Kierkegaard, Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Albert Camus, Hannah Arendt, Hans Jonas, Karl Löwith, Herbert Marcuse, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Martin Buber, Edmund Husserl. Engaged with the intellectual prominence of fascism and socialism in Europe during in the 1930s and 1940s, which they saw needed both repudiation and study, as a way to re-establish the individual against the values of a hostile and destructive series of communities creating alienation, isolation, and individual meaninglessness. *Postmodernism : Rejects Modernism, meta-narrative - multiple perspective, role of individual (scholarly sources Lyotard, Foucault, Barthes, Geertz). *Structuralism : Many phenomena do not occur in isolation but in relation to each other (scholarly sources Geertz, Lévi-Strauss). *Poststructuralism :Deconstruction, destabilizes the relationship between language and objects the language refers to (scholarly sources Lyotard, Derrida, Foucault). 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Global intellectual history」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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